Supporting First-Generation College Students

Babineau, K. (2018). Closing the gap: An overview of the literature on college persistence and underrepresented populations. Cowen Institute. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED593497.pdf
This literature review examines research on student persistence in underrepresented demographics of college students, including first-generation college students (FGCS), students from low-income backgrounds, and students of color. The data presented in this report does not always differentiate between these three categories, and the authors note that these categories can often overlap. First-generation students begin at two-year institutions at a higher rate than continuing-generation students (52% vs. 28%). FGCS also have lower rates of persistence, with 20% of FGCS having completed a bachelor's degree within 10 years of their sophomore year of high school, versus 42% of continuing-generation students. Of those enrolled at a 2-year college, only 47% of FGCS have graduated or are still enrolled after 6 years. The report identifies four major types of barriers: social/cultural, economic, academic, and situational. For social and cultural barriers, a lack of cultural capital from parents can be a significant obstacle for FGCS, with weaker family support; this affects even academically prepared students. FGCS also have higher economic barriers, with 54% of students reporting they left college without a credential because they could not afford to continue. Underrepresented students have higher amounts of student loans, and have a greater need to work while enrolled, which can have a detrimental effect on schoolwork and the ability to access extracurricular options. In terms of academic barriers, FGCS may have lower GPAs and less college readiness, such as not having taken the SAT/ACT. This barrier is less detrimental to persistence overall, however, with only 16% of first-generation early college leavers citing academic concerns. Finally, in terms of situational barriers, FGCS have a higher rate of family status changes (e.g., marriage, death, or birth), conflicts at home, and personal problems or illness, which can lead to leaving school. Many underrepresented students have increased family obligations and responsibilities. The researchers suggest several interventions to address these barriers. First, transition programs like summer bridge programs and orientation can reduce summer melt and increase student retention. Targeted advising for first-year students or underrepresented student groups are linked to increased retention. Mentoring programs, which can be formal or informal and can include peer support, may also be helpful in persistence, although the literature is not as strong in this area. Learning communities can be helpful in promoting a sense of belonging and increasing critical thinking and intercultural effectiveness. Increasing faculty-student interactions outside of the class, such as through mentoring, social gathering, and work opportunities, may also have positive effects on academic performance and persistence, although research is limited. Finally, population-specific scholarships can help avoid economic barriers, and pairing them with academic and social support can lead to even better outcomes. Early warning systems are a critical way to identify students who need additional support, which is important for FGCS. Researchers also recommend more robust financial literacy training.

Bennett, D., McCarty, C., & Carter, S. (2021). Grit, financial stress, and academic success for FGCS. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies, 26.
Bennett’s survey study of 419 undergraduate students in the Business and Industry college at Jacksonville State University examined the factors that impacted both short- and long-term academic success for first-generation college students (FGCS). This study found that for both non-FGCS and FGCS, being female and having a high ACT score had a positive impact on GPA. In contrast, being African American and experiencing financial stress negatively impacted academic performance and GPA for both non-FGCS and FGCS, despite the African American students having high levels of grit. The author recommends increasing financial resources for FGCS so that they can work less hours which would reduce financial related stressors and provide more time and energy to focus on academic achievement.

Brookover, D. L., Hanley, E. M., Boulden, R., & Johnson, K. F. (2021). "I want to be a first": Student, family, and school factors influencing first-generation student college readiness. School Community Journal, 31(1), 41–64.
A sample group of first-generation college bound high school students participated in a qualitative study that examined their perspectives and experiences using the following themes: (a) student agency fostering resilience; (b) cultural values; (c) family and friend involvement; (d) synergy in the school community; and (e) school community stakeholder perspectives on college readiness for first-generation students. The researchers used a social constructivist phenomenological methodology that relied on interviews of first-generation college bound students. During these interviews, the students constructed knowledge by sharing their perspectives and answering open-ended questions about potential factors influencing first-generation college readiness. The data revealed the importance of school counselors, teachers, family, and local community in preparing first-generation college bound students to matriculate. The authors recommend infusing college and career readiness into core subjects in high school and the collaboration of school counselors with the English department to incorporate resume building into the curriculum. Further, the authors recommend high schools offering a college readiness elective for first-generation college bound students to ensure that they receive multi-faceted levels of support, since some first-generation college students may not have family or community support for matriculation.

Cataldi, E. F., Bennett, C. T., & Chen, X. (2018). First-generation students: College access, persistence, and postbachelor's outcomes (NCES 2018-421). National Center for Education Statistics. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED580935.pdf
This report examines first-generation college students' (FGCS) experiences in postsecondary education, labor market outcomes, and degree attainment, compared to continuing-generation students. Researchers used several sets of longitudinal data, divided into three groups: first generation, parent(s) attended some college, and parent(s) earned bachelor's degree. Overall, FGCS had lower enrollment in postsecondary education and were at greater risk for not persisting or completing credential programs. Some of the reasons the researchers flagged include being less prepared academically, having external commitments such as children or full-time jobs, having other demographic characteristics such as low socioeconomic status, and the "lack of cultural capital," which is defined as not knowing many of the concepts or terms used in college such as office hours or the significance of a syllabus. 72% of FGCS were enrolled in postsecondary education versus 93% of continuing-generation students, but only 58% enrolled immediately (compared to 78% of continuing-generation students). After three years, 33% of FGCS had left postsecondary education without earning a credential versus 14%. Within 6 years of enrolling, only 56% of FGCS had earned a credential or remained enrolled; the number was lower at community colleges (49%). There were no statistically significant differences in terms of participation in the labor market or median annualized salaries between FGCS and continuing-generation students, although it is important to note that the population examined were those who earned a bachelor's degree; those with an associate's degree or with some college were not included.

Checkoway, B. (2018). Inside the gates: First-generation students finding their way. Higher Education Studies, 8(3), 72–84.
The author, Checkoway, was a first-generation college student (FGCS) and discusses his experiences. He states that the anxiety and stress that he experienced as a FGCS was a key factor that affected his ability to choose courses and professors that were a good fit. According to Checkoway, many FGCS want to choose courses where the pedagogy and content fit their social situation and find professors who can effectively communicate with students in "their situation." He also believes that if FGCS cannot choose courses and professors correctly, their academic performance suffers. While current bridge and welcoming programs that target FGCS provide some value socially for FGCS, he asserts that they have little positive effect on FGCS' academic experience. Instead, Checkoway believes that universities should offer courses and professors that are culturally relevant to FGCS so that FGCS do not experience a cultural mismatch. For example, FGCS who are also members of a racial or ethnic minority will have no cultural context with foundational courses wherein the master narrative focuses on Western Civilization. Checkoway recommends moving away from the classic first-year foundational courses offered at universities and offering instead foundational courses on social class, social justice, intergroup dialogue, consciousness raising, leadership for change, and action practicum. Checkoway believes that this change at the curriculum level will ensure academic success for FGCS due to the overarching importance of cultural fit.

Clayton, A. B., Medina, M. C., & Wiseman, A. M. (2019). Culture and community: Perspectives from first-year, first-generation-in-college Latino students. Journal of Latinos & Education, 18(2), 134–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2017.1386101
This qualitative study examined first-generation college students (FGCS) who identify as Latino, specifically those enrolled in a predominantly white institution in the southeastern United States, where only 4% of students identify as Hispanic/Latino. Semi-structured interviews were given during the students' second semester of college. Throughout the process, five themes emerged. First, students embraced their identity as Latinos and their culture, with a desire to connect with other Latinos and share their cultural identity. Second, while students had strong emotional support from their family, they shouldered most of the responsibility for the process of applying and attending college. Third, students looked for ways to develop and become a community with other Latinos on campus, both in a social sense and in looking for mentors. Supportive peer groups were cited as being pivotal to a sense of belonging. Fourth, students embraced their Latino identity, although there were differences in how much it played in role in their involvement on campus, with some students instead finding other organizations to provide mentoring. Lastly, students mentioned that they had to take personal responsibility for their education, relying on themselves or mentors, instead of their family.

Demetriou, C., Meece, J., Eaker-Rich, D., & Powell, C. (2017). The activities, roles, and relationships of successful first-generation college students. Journal of College Student Development, 58(1), 19–36. https:/doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0001
This study reviewed data sources from 16 first-generation college students (FGCS) enrolled at a large, public university in the southern U.S. Students were all from low-income families and were on track to graduate on time with their baccalaureate degree. Overall, the students were actively engaged in college life, participating in student organizations, community service, curricular activities such as study abroad or faculty-mentored research, and employment. Active engagement with coursework also led to more academic success. All students joined some sort of small community, whether it was a group of friends based around a common interest, a student club, or another group. These communities helped ground students in their college experience. Relationships with an experienced peer, faculty member, or other adult were instrumental in creating a positive college experience. This could be an academic mentor, a peer mentor, or an employment mentor, but having someone that students could turn to for questions or support was seen as invaluable. The researchers also identified four main attitudes and dispositions that they believed led to success: being flexible and willing to change; feeling independent; perceiving challenges as opportunities for growth; and risk-taking. Overall, they recommend that institutions implement formalized mentoring programs (including peer mentors) as well as other high-impact practices as described by Kuh, such as living-learning communities, faculty-mentored research, and study abroad.

Evans, R., Stansberry, D., Bullington, K. E., & Burnett, D. (2020). First in college: A qualitative exploration of experiences of first-generation students. Inquiry, 23(1).
The authors of this article conducted a phenomenological study using two focus groups of first-generation college students (FGCS) attending a rural community college and FGCS attending a large, public, metropolitan, research university to investigate perceptions of how their lived experiences have impacted their success academically and non-academically. Both institutions were in the southeastern United States. The authors used a qualitative approach by conducting focus group interviews to determine what experiences students perceived as impacting their academic and non-academic college success. The data showed that for both community college and university FGCS, support services were perceived as positive remedies for missing social capital. However, the authors found that in contrast to the community college, FGCS at university did not feel that they received adequate support in choosing classes, figuring out pre-requisites, and understanding their program path. Conversely, the FGCS at the community college cited academic advising, peer tutoring, career services, and financial aid services as being easily accessible and instrumental to their academic success. The FGCS at university also seemed to suffer from higher levels of financial stress due to the lack of support services in financial aid. FGCS at the community college reported actively engaged financial aid advisors who informed them of scholarship opportunities and explained student loans in depth, thereby reducing some anxiety about their financial aid situation. Interestingly, FGCS at community college did not report the same level of parental interest in their academic success or graduating with a degree as the FGCS at university did. Both groups of FGCS felt that their self-efficacy and determination enabled them to succeed academically. More university FGCS participated in on-campus activities than FGCS at the community college, with FGCS at the community college stating work schedules were the biggest hurdle to on campus participation. Interestingly, the FGCS at the community college reported study groups and peer-to-peer networking as their primary method of social integration rather than participation in student clubs/organizations. The authors felt that this study supported the findings of earlier research that FGCS at both university and community colleges perceive lack of social capital to be their biggest challenge in achieving academic success. The authors suggest that both universities and community colleges should implement specialized programs for the families of FGCS, as well as academic and financial advising designed specifically for the needs of FGCS.

Falcon, L. (2015, June). Breaking down barriers: First-generation college students and college success. Innovation Showcase, 10(6). https://www.league.org/innovation-showcase/breaking-down-barriers-first-generation-college-students-and-college-success
First-generation college students (FGCS) often have common obstacles to their academic success, including lack of college readiness, family support, family stability, difficulty adjusting to college, and low academic self-esteem. FGCS may have complicated relationships with their families, with some parents not understanding the level of time and commitment needed to succeed academically, and some students not separating enough from their families to embrace things like extracurriculars. Some of the factors that lead to success for FGCS include participation in college readiness programs, family support, social and academic assimilation in college, and personal characteristics such as problem-solving, self-efficacy, motivation, and independence.

Gillen-O'Neel, C. (2021). Sense of belonging and student engagement: A daily study of first- and continuing-generation college students. Research in Higher Education, 62(1), 45–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-019-09570-y
In this study, both first-generation college students (FGCS) and continuing-generation students reported their sense of belonging and daily engagement every evening via an online survey. A one-time survey was also conducted. Participants were largely Caucasian students drawn from five private colleges in Minnesota. This study examined whether daily changes in sense of belonging were more strongly associated with academic emotions and behaviors for FGCS than they were for continuing-generation students. The data from the study showed that FGCS daily attendance and class participation rose and fell in conjunction with their daily sense of belonging whereas continuing-generation students attended and participated regardless of whether they felt a positive sense of belonging. Interestingly, this study showed that FGCS and continuing-generation students did not differ in their average levels of sense of belonging or engagement, but they did differ in their reactions to daily changes in sense of belonging, with FGCS less likely to attend class or participate in class if they attended. The author recommends that more initiatives are taken to make FGCS "feel at home" at their respective institutions.

Holland, M. M. (2020). Framing the search: How first-generation students evaluate colleges. Journal of Higher Education, 91(3), 378–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2019.1647582
The author, a faculty member at the University of Buffalo, conducted a study of 29 first-generation college students (FGCS) and 22 school counseling members at two racially and socio-economically diverse suburban high schools in the Northeast. Interviews and observational data were used to determine how FGCS evaluate and choose colleges. The study found that FGCS use three frames to evaluate colleges: incidental, limited, and personal fit, with the limited frame being used by most FGCS in the study. In contrast, high school counselors mainly used the personal fit frame when counseling high school students on their college choice. Incidentally, the personal fit frame was the least likely evaluation factor for FGCS. According to Holland, this mismatch in evaluation frames means that high school counseling services are largely ineffective for FGCS who are seeking help with the college selection process. FGCS that use an incidental frame have the mindset that details about colleges and distinctions between them are incidental to the larger goal of college attendance. The author postulates that this is because FGCS are overwhelmed by the number of potential colleges and the distinctions between them and lack the family resources and social capital to evaluate the differences between institutions. According to the author, FGCS using an incidental frame are primarily focused on college attendance as an end goal and cannot accurately gauge their chances of acceptance or the financial cost of college. Holland found that cultural knowledge about college and social networks influenced the frame that students employed, and higher socioeconomic groups were more likely to use the personal fit frame when evaluating college options. Holland recommends that colleges provide more targeted information to assist FGCS with evaluation and reduced or free applications. Further, Holland recommends that colleges should examine the secondary aspects of application process such as applying for financial aid and completing applications to make sure that cultural disconnect does not prevent FGCS from successfully finishing the application process.

Ishitani, T. T. (2016). First-generation students' persistence at four-year institutions. College and University, 91(3), 22–32.
The author, Terry Ishitani, is an associate professor of higher education and has devoted several years of his career to research on first-generation college students (FGCS). In this article, Ishitani researched the factors affecting FGCS persistence at four-year institutions using a study that employed an exponential model with period specific effects. Data was drawn from the 2004–09 Beginning Postsecondary Student (BPS: 04/09) data set sponsored by NCES. The total sample size was 16,700. The study found that FGCS were 80% more likely to drop out of college in their second year than other students. Further, FGCS who did not graduate in their fourth year were 40% more likely than other students to drop out in their fourth year. FGCS admission tests were also indicative of their level of persistence with students in the lowest quartile being approximately 3.1 times (odds ratio) more likely to withdraw in their first year. Interestingly, the study found that social integration, such as attending intramural sports and school clubs specifically within the first year, helped to reduce FGCS dropout rates. Continued financial aid through the first three years of school had a positive effect on persistence for FGCS. Academic integration such as meeting with tutors, attending peer study groups, and meeting with a professor had a significant effect on FGCS persistence if it occurred frequently within the first year of school. Being female was also a positive factor contributing to FGCS persistence. Ishitani recommends that institutions establish a group of personnel who design and organize programs to enhance second-year retention. He also recommends increased institutional efforts at social integration for students in their third year rather than most institutional social integration efforts being focused solely on first year students.

Kim, J., Miller, S. M., Hwang, J., & Olson, J. S. (2021). Female first-generation college students: A review of challenges and successes. Journal of Global Education and Research, 5(2), 136–150.
The authors of this article conducted a systemic literature review of thirteen studies to determine what challenges are unique to female first-generation college students (FGCS) in both universities and community colleges. The literature demonstrated that there are more females attending college than males and the FGCS population is also largely female. Female FGCS are more likely to come from diverse socio-economic backgrounds and have diverse family responsibilities and challenges such as the care of children and elderly relatives. Further, older female FGCS have more difficulty adjusting to college because they have difficulty acclimating to their new role as student due to conflicting identities and expectations as family caregivers. The literature review identified three themes that institutions need to address to ensure academic success for female FGCS success: identity conflict and negotiation, support systems, and socio-economic background. The authors recommend colleges target their resources for female FGCS to deal with the challenges posed by those three themes. The authors also determined that current literature on FGCS does not adequately address the overlapping identities of female FGCS and recommend further research on this topic.

Kim, Y., & Sax, L. (2009). Student-faculty interaction in research universities: Differences by student gender, race, social class, and first-generation status. Research in Higher Education, 50(5), 437–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-009-9127-x
Researchers examined data from 58,000 students enrolled in the University of California system to see how educational efficacy of student-faculty interaction may vary based on a variety of student characteristics, including first-generation status. Student-faculty interaction, in a variety of formal or informal methods, is linked to positive outcomes, including "subject matter competence, cognitive skills and intellectual growth, attitudes and values, educational attainment, and career choice and development" (p. 438). This study examined a variety of student subgroups, but this summary will focus only on first-generation college students (FGCS). The data show that FGCS have less interactions with faculty, including less communication within and outside of class, and assist faculty with research less. FGCS were also slightly less satisfied with faculty advising. The fact that FGCS had lower rates of interaction is concerning, because this interaction has many positive effects, including increased critical thinking and social awareness, higher GPA, more frequent pursuit of more advanced degrees, and increased sense of belonging.

Leo, A. (2021). Aspiration and opportunity: First-generation immigrants and refugees at community college. Community College Review, 49(4), 435–456.
This article focuses on first-generation refugee and immigrant students transitioning into and out of community college. Data analyzed was drawn from a year-long ethnographic project study conducted among current and former high school students from a culturally and racially diverse secondary school located in New York State. This study utilized forms of traditional ethnographic research that relied on observational techniques. The study revealed that both immigrant and refugees' uncertainty and anxiety about higher education was fueled by unfamiliarity with the college process and challenges they faced in navigating college and institutions. The author determined from the data that migratory pathways play a key role in the postsecondary trajectories of immigrants and refugees. For example, immigrants from backgrounds where they did not spend time in a refugee camp were more likely to attend a community college and successfully transfer to a four-year university, whereas refugees were less likely to complete their degree at the community college and even less likely to transfer to a university. The author suggests that community colleges should offer for-credit English composition courses geared towards English learners as well as events and programs that foster a culture of welcoming and acceptance for immigrant and refugee students.

Ma, P-W. W., & Shea, M. (2021). First-generation college students' perceived barriers and career outcome expectations: Exploring contextual and cognitive factors. Journal of Career Development, 48(2), 91–104.
This study was undertaken to explain the links between first-generation college students' (FGCS) perceived barriers and career outcome expectations and to identify protective factors against their perceived barriers. Study participants were FGCS from an undergraduate psychology program at two universities, one on the east coast and one on the west coast. Study participants were also largely female. The study results suggest that the higher level of barriers FGCS perceive, the more likely they would have negative career outcome expectations. Study findings also indicated that with a higher sense of coherence and support from family and friends, FGCS are more likely to have positive career outcome expectations. However, the study did not find a direct relationship between campus connectedness and career outcome expectations. The author recommends a learning community that is built into the academic curriculum where students can experience positive social interactions with peers who can understand and relate to their struggles while they are attending classes or small group tutoring activities. This would remove the burden from FGCS, who are often commuter students. of taking extra time away from work and family to attend extra events. Having a learning community built into the curriculum would also minimize FGCS' internal barriers to seeking help academically. Additionally, the author recommends peer mentoring programs where first-year FGCS are paired with senior FGCS who can share with them their perspective and positive stories of overcoming challenges. The author recommends that colleges provide an opportunity, whether in class or socially, for FGCS to examine the meaning of their college education and connection to their future career aspirations.

Manzoni, A., & Streib, J. (2019). The equalizing power of a college degree for first-generation college students: Disparities across institutions, majors, and achievement levels. Research in Higher Education, 60(5), 577–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9523-1
This article examines if there is a wage gap between first- and continuing-generation students' wages after completion of a baccalaureate degree. One factor that needs to be considered is that first-generation college students (FGCS) are less likely to enroll in highly selective colleges, which often offer pathways to higher earning jobs. Choice of majors may also impact earnings, as STEM fields tend to pay higher than the humanities and education fields. This study tried to address these disparities to determine if there was an overall wage gap present. After controlling for variables, the authors found an 11% generational wage gap for men and a 9% generational wage gap for women, although some of the wage gap for women can be attributed to race and motherhood. In terms of the selectivity of institutions, only students at institutions with a medium level of selectivity showed a statistically significant generational wage gap. Overall, the authors believe the inequality in wages is due more to the labor market overall, rather than educational factors.

Means, D. R., & Pyne, K. B. (2017). Finding my way: Perceptions of institutional support and belonging in low-income, first-generation, first-year college students. Journal of College Student Development 58(6), 907–924. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0071
Researchers followed 10 low-income, first-generation college students (FGCS) from a college access program through the end of their first year of college to determine how (and which) institutional support increased their sense of belonging. Many factors can negatively impact a sense of belonging, including being low-income and/or working-class, being a first-generation college student, and being a student of color. Many FGCS may also overlap with the other two categories. The institutional supports that were found to most increase sense of belonging were "institutional, need-based scholarship programs, social identity-based student organizations, community-building within residence halls, supportive faculty, academic support services, and high-impact educational practices, such as study abroad" (p. 912), as well as multicultural offices. Some students did experience tensions with balancing expectations for participation in student organizations with the time demands needed to succeed academically. Students noted that faculty with a willingness to spend time after class one-on-one with students, and those who employed supportive strategies such as making notes available, using visuals, and using a variety of teaching and learning strategies were helpful in encouraging students. On the other hand, faculty who signaled busyness and stress implicitly discouraged students from seeking them out, and the effect was magnified for FGCS, who felt hesitant to interrupt. Overall, having institutional support structures in place made students feel valued, and helped increase a sense of belonging. The authors suggest implementing a cohort-based comprehensive support programs for FGCS beyond financial aid; promoting professional development for faculty to improve cultural competence and awareness, improve strategies for building relationships with students, and increase student efficacy; and increase work with diversity, social justice, and substance abuse.

Minicozzi, L., & Roda, A. (2020). Unveiling the hidden assets that first-generation students bring to college. Journal for Leadership and Instruction, 19(1), 43–46.
This research utilized a case study of 22 first-generation students (FGCS) of color at public community colleges and universities, and 33 white continuing-generation students at private universities in Long Island, New York, all in their first year, to determine which specific attitudes and behaviors first-year students believed were necessary to transition to college. This study found that students who are taught to be independent learners and workers and to interact with faculty, and to know how to seek help felt better prepared for the transition to college. Interestingly, this study found that FGCS were good independent learners and workers but lacked the skills for self-advocacy. In contrast, the continuing-generation white students at the private schools lacked the independent learning and work ethic but had no problems advocating for themselves. The author posits that this is because the group of white continuing-generation students at private schools were being explicitly taught how to advocate for themselves while the FGCS of color were being taught to "go it alone." The author recommends that both high schools and colleges change their mindsets to an asset-focused model of FGCS that provides tailored supports and resources such as effective communication with faculty and counselors to foster a strong ability for self-advocacy.

Morales, E. E. (2012). Navigating new worlds: A real-time look at how successful and non-successful first-generation college students negotiate their first semesters. International Journal of Higher Education, 1(1), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v1n1p90
This ethnographic study examined fifteen first-generation college students (FGCS) during their first semester to explore how they navigated the college experience. Four main themes were identified: the importance of academic help-seeking, managing free time, underestimated academic rigor, and the crucial nature of the first two weeks. As seen in other studies, FGCS are often reticent to ask for or seek help, but help-seeking is correlated with increased rates of student success. Staff and faculty should initiate contact with students offering support. Contact should be deliberate and there should be an emphasis on forming strong relationships, which helps facilitate trust and comfort with students. Mentoring programs, including peer mentoring programs, can also help with developing help-seeking behaviors. FGCS were also often taken aback at the amount of time needed for their coursework and with how difficult the coursework could be. Time management workshops, tools like planners, structured or mandatory study hours, expanded library hours, increased daytime classes, and more frequent small assignments can help students with time management issues. Professors teaching first-year courses should also consider clearly explaining the expectations of college students and how they might differ from high school. The first two weeks of college were seen to be incredibly important and having early academic feedback was crucial. Students who experienced academic success early on were more likely to increase their self-efficacy and lead to more success down the road. Early alert systems, scaffolding initial course assignments, and providing detailed formative feedback on assignments can help put students on the right path.

Peña, C. C. (2013). Academic achievement of first-generation Mexican American males in a community college. Journal of International Education and Leadership, 3(1).
This purpose of this study was to explore the conditions that contributed to the college success and associate degree attainment of Mexican male first-generation college students at a southwest Texas community college. A qualitative research study utilizing in-depth interviews was used to understand the participants' behavior, prescriptions, perspectives, and understandings of their academic experience in the community college. The data gathered showed that positive personal identity, resiliency, access, networking, motivation, peer influence, inspirational and mentorship, college preparedness, counseling and guidance were all important themes that ensured participants academic success and graduation. The author believes that this research also supports earlier research which states that motivational factors and self-regulatory mechanisms also affect an individual's behavior, perhaps even more than environmental factors.

Potter, D., Jayne, D., & Britt, S. (2020). Financial anxiety among college students: The role of generational status. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 31(2), 284–295.
First-generation college students (FGCS) often experience high levels of financial anxiety, which can lead to poorer academic and social outcomes, including lower GPA, reduced course loads, longer time to degree completion, leaving school, increased rate of depression and anxiety, and feelings of social isolation. FGCS typically receive less family monetary support and rely on scholarships, grants, and loans, with loans being the primary source of funding. FGCS have higher levels of financial anxiety than continuing-generation students, as did students who worked part time or full time (although there was a considerable overlap in those populations). Comparison to peer financial situations, a lack of financial literacy/training, and feeling a lack of control over a financial situation can worsen feelings of financial anxiety. The researchers suggest that institutions implement more financial education and financial counseling services, increase access to service-learning opportunities, and experiment with methods of supporting students who work; some ideas listed were increasing work-study positions and "providing mass transportation to large employment hubs" (p. 293).

Ricks, J. R., & Warren, J. M. (2021). Transitioning to college: Experiences of successful first-generation college students. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 11(1), 1–15.
Four college seniors at a historically black university in the southeast U.S., all first-generation college students (FGCS), were interviewed to discuss their experiences and coping strategies throughout their time in higher education. Eight participants were female, and two were male, with a variety of majors. Students reported questions and confusion in their first year as they transitioned from high school to college, as they were unsure of procedures and policies, even after attending a summer orientation. Course registration, course planning, and financial aid procedures were flagged as particularly challenging, and students also mentioned not understanding the importance of things like checking college email and reading the course syllabi. There were also significant personal and social experience challenges, with negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, loneliness, grief, depression, and homesickness. Although the transition was difficult, many also stated that it was exciting and empowering. A strong will and determination were mentioned as being key attributes to help them overcome obstacles and difficulties. Some students also mentioned having some issues adjusting to academic coursework, with a lack of time management and study skills being the most detrimental. Study participants praised the support they received from advisors, professors, and their family, all of whom encouraged them and provided guidance.

Roksa, J., Silver, B. R., Deutschlander, D., & Whitley, S. E. (2020). Navigating the first year of college: Siblings, parents, and first‐generation students' experiences. Sociological Forum, 35(3), 565–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12617
This study examined an alternate concept of cultural capital and gathered data on cultural capital's effects on first generation college students' (FGCS) social mobility instead of their academic success, which has already been addressed in previous research on cultural capital and FGCS. This study also enlarged the focus of cultural capital effects on FGCS to include siblings. This study consisted of in-depth interviews conducted with 35 first-year students who were also FGCS at a highly selective public institution on the East Coast. The researchers sought to determine if FGCS with an older sibling who had attended college and graduated had increased cultural capital due to their older sibling's successful college experience. Interestingly, the study participants largely did not report asking their older sibling for help with academic challenges. Study participants reported "studying harder" or "going to tutoring" as their main methods for addressing academic issues. Similarly, none of the study participants reported asking their older siblings for help with social integration. Notable exceptions to this trend were found only when the study participant had an older sibling who went to the same institution. Where having an elder college-educated sibling added the most value with respect to cultural capital for FGCS was in interactions with parents. FGCS with college-educated elder siblings were able to discuss academic and social challenges with their parents because the parents seemed to have more of an understanding of "how things work in college." In contrast, the data from this study showed that FGCS without an elder college-educated sibling were often unable to talk with their parents about academic and social struggles. They were also less involved with extra-curricular activities and school clubs. The author recommends colleges and universities add outreach to parents of FGCS as part of their focus in providing resources and outreach to FGCS.

Shumaker, R., & Wood, J. L. (2016). Understanding first-generation community college students: An analysis of covariance examining use of, access to, and efficacy regarding institutionally offered services. Community College Enterprise, 22(2), 9–17.
This study examined the reasons why non-traditional college students and first-generation college students (FGCS) who have the highest need for support services often do not seem to utilize them. Data from this study was taken from the Community College Success Measure and a sample delimited to 1,398 students at a large, suburban, community college with a high transfer rate. Analysis of data showed that while FGCS utilized the services largely to the same degree as their continuing-generation peers, the community college struggled to facilitate parity in the academic benefits that FGCS received when they utilized support services such as academic advising, career counseling, personal counseling, and educational planning. This dispels earlier research that postulated FGCS did not utilize support services to the same degree as continuing-generation students. The authors recommend a detailed examination of programming for support services with an increased focus on access and service efficacy that includes a broader range of shareholders at the college such as human resources, professional development, and student outreach staff so that recruitment policies, and procedures can consider the FGCS population when planning and implementing departmental policies. The authors believe that further research is needed to uncover reasons for the disparate benefit of support services for FGCS.

Sims, L. R., & Ferrare, J. J. (2021). "Since I am from where I am from": How rural and urban first-generation college students differentially use social capital to choose a college major. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 37(6), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.26209/jrre3706
This study focused exclusively on the difference between how rural and urban first-generation college students (FGCS) choose college majors and their career pathways. Longitudinal interviews and academic records were gathered from 33 students at a flagship research university. Many FGCS believe that college is necessary for upward mobility and a stable, well-paid career, and choice of college major is often tied to this goal. However, the process of choosing a college major is often fraught with many factors influencing it, including family input. The researchers found that urban FGCS were more likely to have explored career options in high school, such as through career-preparation programs. By contrast, rural FGCS relied more on one or two hometown mentors, even while in college. Family and hometown factors were highly influential for both groups, providing motivation and support, although not usually providing guidance on choosing a college major. Urban students usually knew more people who had attended college than rural students, such as friends or extended families, which allowed them better access to a knowledgeable support system. Rural students felt more tied to their hometowns than urban students, but also feared that returning meant failure. Rural students were less open to exploring careers or 'finding their passions' than urban students, with rural students expressing concern about college changing them. Rural students were less likely to change their majors compared to FGCS overall, which have been found to change majors more than continuing-generation students. Rural students were more likely to choose highly career-focused majors that tended to lead to higher paying and more stable jobs, such as medicine and law, with aspirations for terminal degrees. Urban students were more open to credential-focused majors (e.g., nursing or teaching) and were more likely to have fallback options. In this group, rural students chose careers in healthcare, education, law, and engineering, and 14 out the 18 indicated they planned to earn a graduate degree. The urban students chose careers in healthcare, business, engineering, law, education, and geophysics, with only 6 of 15 students planning on graduate school. Rural students noted that professors were a key resource for academic decision making, with urban students relying more on student communities, including identity-based student communities.

Snodgrass Rangel, V., Vaval, L., & Bowers, A. (2020). Investigating underrepresented and first‐generation college students’ science and math motivational beliefs: A nationally representative study using latent profile analysis. Science Education, 104(6), 1041–1070. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21593
This study used a latent profile analysis of a nationally representative sample of high school students from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 to investigate the math and science beliefs of underrepresented students, specifically first-generation college students (FGCS) in order to determine why FGCS are overrepresented in groups of students with negative math and science beliefs and the worst math, science, and STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) academic outcomes. This study examined the motivational beliefs held by FGCS about math, science, and STEM subjects that would influence them to take math, science, or STEM courses and/or pursue a major in those subjects. Analyzed data reveal that high school preparation is crucial to academic success in math, science, and STEM courses. The lack of adequate instructors in math, science, and STEM subjects in high school can partially explain why FGCS are underrepresented in these majors. Additionally, data reveals that students' attitudes and perceptions of their ability to succeed in these subjects are heavily influenced by negative experiences in these subjects at lower performing schools with lesser resources. Further, FGCS lack the social capital to have knowledge of STEM careers and what majors prepare them for those careers. Findings in the data with respect to ethnicity and gender were interesting, with both male and female Asian FGCS and then male FGCS of all races scoring higher in their positive beliefs about math, science, and STEM subjects than other genders and ethnic/racial groups. The authors recommend that instructors and counselors at the high school and community college level work to ensure that FGCS students understand the variety of STEM careers available to them and what courses they need to complete a STEM major and career.

Tibbetts, Y., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Borman, G. D., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2018). Different institutions and different values: Exploring first-generation student fit at 2-year colleges. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00502
This study examines the cultural mismatch theory of values systems for first-generation college students (FGCS), where middle-class norms of independence reflected in American institutions of higher education conflict with, and threaten, the more interdependent values that are characteristics of working-class populations. This field study of 13 two-year community college campuses was conducted in a Midwestern state with a guaranteed transfer program in place with the state's university system. Data gathered from this study showed that both minority and non-minority FGCS at community colleges did not face the same concerns of "belonging" that both groups of FGCS faced at universities. Data from the faculty survey in this study revealed that contrary to earlier research and beliefs, community colleges emphasize norms of interdependence as much as they emphasize independence; thus, there is not a cultural mismatch of FGCS goals being different from community college norms. Interestingly, FGCS with higher ACT scores reported higher sense of belonging at community colleges and students with lower ACT scores reported higher belonging at community colleges in the interdependent condition. One important observation from the data was that affirming independent values (e.g., learning and gaining knowledge, curiosity, independence) can help college students generally even when there is no cultural values mismatch. Overall, the data from this study indicated that the norms and values implicit in the community college culture are a better fit for FGCS than traditional four-year universities. However, even though FGCS perceive a more welcoming culture and fit at community colleges, their achievement gaps persist. The authors attribute this achievement gap not to a cultural mismatch, but to the fact that most FGCS are less academically prepared (lower ACT scores and fewer AP/IB credits taken in high school), have fewer economic resources, and are employed while they are attending college. The author recommends further cultural mismatch research exploring how student motives may vary by type of academic institution.

Wilbur, T., & Roscigno, V. (2016). First-generation disadvantage and college enrollment/completion. Socius, 2, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023116664351
The authors reviewed data from several waves of the Educational Longitudinal Study, focusing on first-generation college students (FGCS) enrolled in four-year colleges. FGCS tend to be from lower socioeconomic status, and lower SES parents are less likely to be involved in their children's' academics and have less resources and cultural capital to assist their children, although they are usually still supportive and nurturing. FGCS, along with lower SES students overall, are less likely to be involved in curricular and extracurricular activities, which can be detrimental to a sense of belonging and adjustment. FGCS also tend to have stronger family ties, in that leaving home can be a big step and an extreme stressor; this means that many FGCS may commute to school, choose schools closer to home, or drop out. The data found that first-generation students are 30% less likely to enroll in a four-year college than continuing-generation students. Continuing-generation students have higher rates of parent involvement in education and higher rates of college savings, along with cultural capital. Students with college savings are 66% more likely to enroll in college, and those who discuss cultural and world events (cultural capital) are 80% more likely to enroll. FGCS are significantly more likely to work while in college, and work longer hours than continuing-generation students. FGCS are more likely to live at home with parents while attending college (which is correlated with a 35% decrease in completing a bachelor's degree) and are also significantly more likely to experience "personal and family-related stressful life events" (which is correlated with a 17% decrease in completing a bachelor's degree). There is a large gap in completion rates, with FGCS 58% more likely to not complete than continuing-generation students. Participation in extracurricular activities increases the chances of graduating by half, and participation in high impact activities also increases graduation (3% for participating in one activity, 15% for participating in multiple). FGCS are less likely to participate in extracurricular activities and high impact activities, due to a variety of reasons, including the need to work. The researchers note that the first-generation gap persists even when low socioeconomic status (SES) is controlled for, so while low SES remains a significant variable in determining enrollment and persistence, the unique effects of being a first-generation college student is a significant factor in its own right.

Yee, A. (2016). The unwritten rules of engagement: Social class differences in undergraduates' academic strategies. Journal of Higher Education, 87(6), 831–858.
This ethnographic research study examined how social class affects undergraduate engagement, through interviews and observations with students at an urban, public university. Students were all first-year, traditional age, and the oldest child in the family to attend a four-year college, all recruited in a first-year summer orientation. Social class was defined in this study as those who had parent(s) receive a four-year college degree (usually referred to as continuing-generation students but referred to in this study as 'middle class') and those whose parents had never attended college (first-generation students, or FGCS). Students whose parent(s) had attended some college but without attaining a degree were excluded from the study. Both groups were engaged in their academics and coursework, but continuing-generation students interacted more with professors, teaching assistants, tutors, and classmates. The author notes that continuing-generation students "tended to interact with others to succeed academically, while first-generation students tended to rely on themselves" (p. 839). Most continuing-generation students expressed that help-seeking would be required for them to succeed, and that they would need to interact with support resources. They were entitled to help and felt comfortable asking for it. By contrast, FGCS employed more independent strategies, interpreting "the responsibility as being on their own to succeed" (p. 845). This led to a much lower rate of engagement with professors and other college staff. They showed diligence in studying and coursework, but when faced with challenges, often doubled down on already known strategies, such as rereading notes or textbooks, as opposed to reaching out for help. This reluctance to seek help was seen as a mix of pride and necessity, and students were proud of their hard work and independence. FGCS were also less likely to consider interacting with professors if there were no problems; that is, if everything was fine, they did not need to interact with professors. This means they may have missed opportunities for advice and clarification, and often felt ill at ease in trying to develop relationships with their professors. This means that the sense of independence and personal responsibility often exhibited by FGCS often can have negative consequences when they are unable or reluctant to reach out for help until it may be too late. Yee suggests that faculty and staff be more proactive in engaging with students and establish structured opportunities for meetings and connections. Systems and support that rely on student-initiated interactions may do FGCS a disservice.